The AMERICAN COLONISTS LIBRARY lists the key texts that influenced America's Founders and also links to them so that you can read them instantly online. This is a comprehensive collection of the literature and documents that most directly impacted the thought and lives of America's colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries. Other versions of this resource exist on the Web, but these are over a decade old, having many links that no longer work. This page has been been thoroughly revised by its originator, Prof. Richard Gardiner. It was last updated July 2015 and will continue to be updated.
ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE (500 B.C.–1800 A.D.)
Ancient and Classical Literature Having Significant Influence Upon the American Colonists
Classic Philosophers and Poets. Most of the founding fathers in America were thoroughly familiar with these Greco-Roman authors: e.g., Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, Virgil.
The Latin Library, Cicero, Livy, Horace, et al. Ability to read these sources extemporaneously was an entrance requirement at colonial schools such as Harvard. Most of the prominent men in the colonies were fluent in Latin.
The Bible. The best Bible online, which allows the user to immediately discover the Hebrew and Greek words behind the English words.
The Bible. This book was, of course, the most influential piece of literature in Colonial America.
St. Augustine. Latin writings; the Church father of choice among American Puritans.
St. Augustine. English translations of his Latin works on predestination, which greatly influenced the Puritans.
Major Medieval Sources Having Significant Influence Upon the American Colonists
William I (sometimes referred to as "William the Conqueror," or "William the Bastard,") was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087.Ordinance of William the Conqueror. Sowing the seeds of separation of Church and State in the English world.
Assize of Clarendon (1166). Defined rights and duties of courts and people in criminal cases. Foundation of the principle of “due process.”
Assize of Arms (1181). Defined rights and duties of people and militias.
Magna Carta (1215). One of the American colonists’ most revered documents, the Magna Carta established the principle that no one, not even the king or a lawmaker, is above the law of God.
De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae, Henry de Bracton (1268). This text was the most important legal treatise written in England in the medieval period, as it organized, systematized, and explicated the principles of English Common Law later embraced by the American colonists.
Summa Theologica, St. Thomas Aquinas (1265–1273). Pinnacle of Scholasticism. Covering a wide range of topics; by the colonial times, most educated people in the Western world were thoroughly familiar with this important text.
Marco Polo’s Travels [excerpt] (c. 1300). Contains the description of the South Pacific that inspired Columbus to attempt to go to India by way of the Atlantic.
Medieval Law Library. The sources studied by many of the lawyers who founded the U.S.
The Declaration of Arbroath (1320). Scotland’s declaration of independence from England. An early model for the U.S. Declaration, this document ends with a phrase parallel to that of the U.S. Declaration: “and to Him as the Supreme King and Judge we commit the maintenance of our cause, casting our cares upon Him and firmly trusting that He will inspire us with courage and bring our enemies to nought.”
Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century Sources Profoundly Impacting the History of America
The Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for “The Hammer of Witches”, or Der Hexenhammer in German) is a treatise on the prosecution of witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer, a German Catholic clergyman.Malleus Maleficarum. Directions for witch-hunting (1486).
Journal, Christopher Columbus (1492). This document begins with Columbus’s statement that the reason why Isabella sponsored his voyage was for the sake of going to India to convert Khan to Roman Catholicism.
The Prince, Machiavelli (1513). Practical advice on governance and statecraft, with thoughts on the kinds of problems any government must be able to solve to endure.
Works of Martin Luther. The father of the Protestant Reformation; his principles were a major part of the American colonists’ worldview.
On Secular Authority, Luther (1523). This document started the political discussion about religious liberty which led to the American Revolution. In this document Luther sets forth the idea of “two kingdoms;” one is political and the other is spiritual, and the two ought be separate. President James Madison commended this “due distinction, to which the genius and courage of Luther led the way, between what is due to Caesar and what is due to God” (Madison to F.L. Schaeffer, December 3, 1821).
The Bondage of the Will, Luther (1524). Luther claimed that this particular document was the cornerstone of the Protestant Reformation; it argues the idea of predestination and God’s sovereignty, two principles which were paramount to many of the American colonists.
The Act of Supremacy, Henry VIII (1534). By this act, the English Reformation began, and the Pope was stripped of his jurisdiction over the English Church. This allowed Lutheran principles to make their way into the English church, and led to the birth of Puritanism.
Institutes of the Christian Religion, John Calvin (1540). Calvin’s magnum opus. The most celebrated American historian, George Bancroft, called Calvin “the father of America,” and added: “He who will not honor the memory and respect the influence of Calvin knows but little of the origin of American liberty.” To John Calvin and the Genevan theologians, President John Adams credited a great deal of the impetus for religious liberty (Adams, WORKS, VI:313). This document includes a justification for rebellion against tyrants by subordinate government officials; this particular justification was at the root of the Dutch, English, and American Revolutions.
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, Copernicus (1543). This document touched off the Scientific Revolution as it repudiated the geocentric theory and asserted a heliocentric theory of the solar system.
The Council of Trent (1545). The Roman Catholic responses to the Protestant Reformation.
Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius Loyola (1548). Rules for the Jesuits written by the founder of the Jesuit Order.
The Magdeburg Bekenntnis or Magdeburg Confession (1550). A document written by followers of Luther stating a theological justification for resisting tyranny.
The Genevan Book of Order (1556). The Form of Prayers and Ministration of the Sacraments, etc.; used in the English Congregation at Geneva.
A Short Treatise on Political Power, John Ponet, D.D. (1556). President John Adams credited this Calvinist document as being at the root of the theory of government adopted by the the Americans. According to Adams, Ponet’s work contained “all the essential principles of liberty, which were afterward dilated on by Sidney and Locke,” including the idea of a three-branched government (Adams, Works, vol. 6, pg. 4). Published in Strasbourg in 1556, it is the first work out of the Reformation to advocate active resistance to tyrannical magistrates, after the Magdeburg Bekenntnis (the Magdeburg Confession).
The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, John Knox (1558). A vigorous critique of the tyranny of “Bloody Mary’s” reign in England, and a call to resist. A large portion of the Americans who fought in the American Revolution were adherents to Knox’s doctrines as set forth in this document.
Act of Supremacy, Elizabeth I (1559). After the brief and bloody reign of her sister, Mary I, who executed numerous Protestants for the cause of Roman Catholicism, this document states Elizabeth’s intention to reaffirm the English church’s independence from Rome. Her beloved status among her subjects caused the first settlers of America to name their colony “Virginia” in honor of this virgin queen.
Foxe’s Book of Martyrs (1563). Detailing the persecutions of Protestants during the reign of Mary I, this book was second only to the Bible in its popularity in the American colonies.
Supralapsarian Calvinism, Theodore Beza (1570). Laying out the principle that God willed and predestined the fall of Adam and the existence of sin and evil. This assertion became the most controversial philosophical conflict among American colonists up through the 19th century.
The Right of Magistrates Over Their Subjects, Theodore Beza (1574). Expanding upon Calvin’s political resistance theory set forth in the final chapters of his Institutes, this work by Calvin’s successor in Geneva, Theodore Beza, was published in response to the growing tensions between Protestants and Catholics in France, which culminated in the St. Bartholomew Day Massacre in 1572. This text suggests that it is the right of a Christian to revolt against a tyrannical King — a principle central to the American colonists’ cause.
The Scholemaster (1570). Philosophy of education among English people, particularly with respect to the importance of learning Latin.
The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion (1571). The official statement of faith of the Church of England; this document formally adopts the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination and repudiates the common notion of “free will.”
Treasons Act (1571). Forbidding criticism of Queen Elizabeth.
De Jure Regni apud Scotos, George Buchanan (1579). Considered the most important piece of political writing in the 16th century, as it articulated the doctrine of the rule of law.
Vindiciae, Contra Tyrannos, or, A Vindication Against Tyrants (1579). This Calvinist document is one of the first to set forth the theory of “social contract” upon which the United States was founded. The idea was disseminated through the English Calvinists to the pen of John Locke, and eventually into the Declaration of Independence. John Adams reported the relevance of this document to the American struggle.
The Dutch Declaration of Independence (1581). This Calvinist document served as a model for the U.S. Declaration of Independence. In his Autobiography, Jefferson indicated that the “Dutch Revolution” gave evidence and confidence to the Second Continental Congress that the American Revolution could likewise commence and succeed. Recent scholarship has suggested that Jefferson may have consciously drawn on this document. John Adams said that the Dutch charters had “been particularly studied, admired, and imitated in every State” in America, and he stated that “the analogy between the means by which the two republics [Holland and U.S.A.] arrived at independency... will infallibly draw them together.”
A Trew Law of Free Monarchs, James I Stuart (1598). Championed the doctrine of divine right of kings. This oppressive political theory contributed to the exodus of the Puritans to America in 1630, and resistance to it was the ultimate goal of three revolutions: 1) the Puritan Revolution of the 1640s, 2) the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and 3) the American Revolution.
The Dutie of a King, Sir Walter Raleigh (1599). Promoting the doctrine of divine right of kings.
The Geneva Bible 1599. Update of the translation made by the Puritans in Geneva in 1560. This was the Bible of choice in New England. These are the footnotes which provide a Calvinist theological interpretation of the Bible. Goodman indicated that he had presented the thesis of this book to John Calvin, and Calvin endorsed it.
Seventeenth Century Sources Relating to American History
Original Dictionaries of the 16th & 17th Centuries. Six bilingual dictionaries: John Palgrave (1530; English-French), Sir Thomas Elyot (1538; Latin- English), William Thomas (1550; Italian-English), Thomas Thomas (1587; Latin-English), John Florio (1598; Italian-English), and Randle Cotgrave (1611; French-English); four English hard-word dictionaries: Edmund Coote (1596), Robert Cawdrey (1604; courtesy of Raymond Siemens), John Bullokar (1616), and Henry Cockeram (1623); one English word-list: Richard Mulcaster (1582); and the first full, English-only dictionary: Thomas Blount (1656).
Colonial Literature, Peter Force, editor. This collection was the most exhaustive source for colonial primary sources in its time.
Instructions, by way of advice, for the intended Voyage to Virginia, John Smith, undated (probably early 1600s). In these Instructions, John Smith gives his recommendations as to how a plantation should be settled in Virginia. The document was most likely written during the first ten years of the colony’s settlement, but is not dated.
Politica, Althusius (1603). This treatise of political philosophy by a German Calvinist jurist contains all the principles that were later embraced by the founders of the United States.
The Voyages to Virginia, 1609-1610 (Original Spelling Version | Modern Spelling Version). William Strachey describes the 1609 voyage to Virginia composed of a nine-ship convoy that ran into a hurricane. Two of the ships were wrecked off the coast of Bermuda, where survivors spent months building the Patience and Deliverance to sail to Jamestown. The voyage became the basis for William Shakespeare’s The Tempest.
Nova Britannia, by R.I. (1609). This pamphlet promotes the Virginia Colony of London to investors and adventurers. It is addressed to Sir Thomas Smith, then Treasurer of the Virginia Company of London.
VIRGINIA richly valued by a Portuguese gentleman, translated out of Portuguese, Richard Hakluyt, the Elder [c. 1553–1616] (1609). This account by Richard Hakluyt, traveler and advocate of overseas colonization, promotes Virginia as a probable site for gold and minerals. He also provides a translation of an account of a Spanish expedition through Florida and the southeast of America from 1539–1542.
A Short Relation made by the Lord De-La-Warre, Lord De-La-Warre (1611). Lord De-La-Warre became Governor of Virginia in 1610. The Virginia Company of London wanted him to standardize laws in Virginia and to help the colony recover from the “Starving Time.” This document is De-La-Warre’s description of the state of affairs in Virginia upon his departure due to ill health in 1611.
A True Relation, George Percy (1609–1612). George Percy served as governor of Virginia between September 1609 and May 1610, and from March 1611 to May 1611. This document is his relation of the “Starving Time” and the war with the Indians from 1609 to 1612.
Relation of Virginia, Henry Spelman (1613). Describes the massacre of Captain Ratcliffe and other colonists by Powhatan Indians in 1609-10. Henry Spelman was one of the few men to survive the attack.
A Plaine Description of the Barmudas, Now Called Sommer Ilands, by W.C. (1613). W.C.’s account includes a description of the shipwreck of Sir Thomas Gates’s ship on Bermuda, the resources and advantages of that colony, and additional supporting material written by residents of Bermuda.
Good News from Virginia sent to the Counsell and Company of Virginia, resident in Virginia, Alexander Whitaker (1613). Alexander Whitaker was the Minister at Henrico Plantation, one of the larger plantations in Virginia. This document is his account of the state of affairs in Virginia. Whitaker wrote this document to counteract discouraging reports and rumors about the Colony.
Letter of Don Diego de Molina (1613). Don Diego de Molina recounts his capture by the English in a letter to Don Alonzo de Velasco, the Spanish Ambassador in London. Molina also expresses concern about the potential growth of English colonies (especially Bermuda and Virginia). He notes the harsh conditions experienced by colonists at Jamestown and states his belief that it would be easy for the Spanish to capture the fort at Jamestown.
Letter of Father Pierre Biard (1614). In this letter to the Reverend Father Claude Acquaviva, Father Pierre Biard details the 1613 capture of French Jesuits in New France by Englishmen from Virginia, his experiences while a prisoner, and his return to France.
A True Discourse of the Present Estate of Virginia, Raphe Hamor (1614). Includes a description of the state of affairs in Virginia, settlements established in the colony, and the relationship between the colonists and the Indians up to 18th of June 1614. The document also contains a description of the christening of Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, and her marriage to John Rolfe in the spring of 1614.
John Rolfe’s Letter to Sir Thomas Dale (1614). John Rolfe explains his reasons for marrying Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, in this letter to Sir Thomas Dale, the governor of Virginia.
John Smith’s Works: Volume 1. Includes “A Description of New England,” “New England’s Trials” (1620 and 1622), and the first part of “General History of Virginia.” Volume 2. Includes the remainder of “General History of Virginia,” plus “An Accidence for Young Seamen,” “The True Travels and Adventures of Captain Smith,” and “Advertisements for the Unexperienced Planters of New England.”
John Pory’s Letter to Sir Dudley Carleton (1619). Describes life in Virginia, the commissioning of the ship the Treasurer to attack Spanish ships in the West Indies, and the state of agriculture in the colony.
Proceedings of the Virginia Assembly (1619). These are the official records of the first elected Assembly to be held in Virginia in 1619. The Assembly consisted of two Burgesses from each of the colony’s four corporations and seven of the private plantations.
Orders and Constitutions (1619, 1620). This document includes the laws governing the Virginia Company of London, the conduct of meetings and business, and the election of the governing body.
A Declaration of the State of the Colonie and Affaires in Virginia, by His Majesty’s Council for Virginia (1620). This description of Virginia and its resources is an attempt by the members of the Council to counteract rumors of the colony’s unprofitability and barrenness.
Works of Arminius. Arminius was a Dutchman who dared to challenge Luther and Calvin on the predestination issue. His writings led to a major controversy in Holland while the Pilgrims were residing there. Arminius’s views were adopted by Archbishop Laud of England, which greatly contributed to the English Calvinists’ desire to leave England in 1630.
Canons of Dort (1619). The Synod at Dort in the Netherlands was called to respond to the views of the Arminians. Participating in this Synod moderated by Gomarus was the leader of the Pilgrims, as well as William Ames (the leading Puritan theologian of the day). As a result of this synod, the “five points of Calvinism” were developed. The “five points,” also called TULIP, became a centerpiece of Puritanism and were ardently defended by American Calvinists such as Jonathan Edwards. The conflict between Calvinists and Arminians was perhaps the most explosive debate in America in the early 18th century. On the Calvinist side, Americans such as Benjamin Franklin and Jonathan Edwards wrote philosophical defenses; on the Arminian side, John Wesley was the premiere mouthpiece. While Madison wrote in defense of Calvinism, Thomas Jefferson utterly repudiated it.
Of Plymouth Plantation (written 1630-1654; first published 1854). This is Governor William Bradford’s history of Plymouth, the most comprehensive primary source available on early Plymouth.
Of Plymouth Plantation, William Bradford. An eyewitness history of the first English settlers of New England.
Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth (London, 1622). This journal, written by several Pilgrims — namely William Bradford and Edward Winslow — records events at Plymouth from the Mayflower’s arrival in November 1620 through the First Thanksgiving in October, 1621, and everything in between.
The Sin and Danger of Self-Love (1621). There were no clergymen among the pilgrims at Plymouth when they first settled. This sermon was written and given by a layman, Robert Cushman, to the Plymouth congregation in December, 1621. Robert Cushman was a member of the Pilgrims church in Leyden, Holland, and came on (and returned in) the ship Fortune.
Good Newes from New England (London, 1624). This book, authored by Edward Winslow, continues the journal in “Mourt’s Relation,” covering the years 1622 and 1623 at Plymouth.
The Tragical Relation of the Virginia Assembly (1624). The members of the Virginia Assembly respond to Sir Thomas Smith’s attempts to discredit and bring about the dissolution of the Virginia Company of London.
The Discourse of the Old Company (1625). A Committee of the King’s Privy Council evaluates the Virginia Company and makes recommendations for the future of the Virginia Colony and the Virginia Company of London.
Richard Lowther Servant Indenture (1627). This document is an example of an indentured servant’s contract between Richard Lowther of Southill and Edward Hurd of London. Lowther contracted his labor to Hurd for four years in return for passage to Virginia and room and board while on Hurd’s plantation.
The First Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England, Sir Edward Coke (1628). Written by a Puritan leader of Parliament, this document was almost the only textbook for lawyers (e.g., Jefferson) during the American Colonial Period. Coke’s influence over the minds of American politicians is inestimable. Clear traces between Coke and the U.S. Constitution are apparent in this work.
The Petition of Right, Sir Edward Coke (1628). This document set forth complaints of the members of Parliament to King Charles I regarding rights of due process. Charles did not receive this complaint warmly. As a result, he shut down Parliament, which ultimately culminated in the English Civil War, and contributed to the exodus of 20,000 Puritans to New England.
Protests of the House of Commons. Documents showing the growth of Parliament’s hatred for King Charles I, first complaining against his closet Catholicism, his Arminianism, and his presumptuousness in levying taxes without the consent of Parliament.
John Winthrop (1588–1649), a wealthy English Puritan lawyer among the first wave of colonists to the New World in 1630. He served as governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony for twelve of the colony's first twenty years of existence. Painting by Charles Osgood (1809–1890, Salem, MA).Experiencia, John Winthrop. A Journal of Religious Experiences.
The Library of John Winthrop’s Father. A catalogue of the books available for the Puritan Lawyer who founded Boston. The library was that of his father, John Winthrop, Harvard Hollisian Professor of Mathematics and Philosophy.
Reasons for the Plantation in New England (circa 1628). This document states clearly and forcefully that the motivations of the Puritans who came to New England c. 1630 were fundamentally religious.
Adventurers who founded the Massachusetts Bay Commonwealth (1628-1630).
Medulla Theologica (The Marrow of Theology), William Ames (1629). The Medulla was the principal required textbook in the Ivy League in the American Colonial Period. One cannot adequately grasp the intellectual climate of New England without understanding the concepts in this book. The following two sections on the Decrees of God and Predestination highlight the central peculiarities of Puritan theology. Ames was unequivocal in stating that God controls the universe and that humans do not “change” or “determine” God’s behavior in any way.
The Wicked Capitalism of Robert Keayne, John Winthrop (1639). A Boston merchant named Robert Keayne was squarely rebuked for profiteering by John Cotton and Governor Winthrop.
Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641.) Early written expression of the liberties asserted by the colonists in reaction to the oppression of European governments.
The Citizen, Thomas Hobbes (1641–47). Discussion of the natural law foundations of government.
Protestation (1641). An oath taken by British citizens loyal to the Puritan interests in Parliament.
Massachusetts Bay School Laws (1642). Requiring that every father teach his children the Catechism; if not, the children shall be taken from the home.
Extract from a manuscript collection of annals relative to Virginia, author unknown (1642). This extract relates the political maneuverings surrounding the Virginia colony’s successful attempt in 1639 to resist the reimposition of Company government instead of the prevailing royal government. The account is anonymous and undated.
The Establishment of the United Colonies of New England (1643). The first attempt at a union of colonies, foreshadowing the United States. This document combines several colonies together for the primary purpose of national defense. This is the first document resembling a federal constitution in America.
Religio Medici, Thomas Browne (1643). The title translates as “The Religion of a Physician.” The book shows the link between religion and Enlightenment science in the 17th century.
A Plea for Religious Liberty, Roger Williams (1644). Early expression of the principle of religious tolerance by the founder of the colony of Rhode Island.
The Solemn League and Covenant (1643–44). The document which allied the Scottish Presbyterians and the Puritans in their struggle against Charles I.
Lex, Rex. This treatise (whose title means “the law is king”) systematized the Calvinistic political theories which had developed over the previous century. Rutherford was a colleague of John Locke’s parents. Most of Locke’s Second Treatise on Government is reflective of Lex, Rex. From Rutherford and other Commonwealthmen such as George Lawson, through Locke, these theorists provided the roots of the Declaration of Independence. This page provides the list of questions Lex, Rex addresses.
Lex, Rex, Samuel Rutherford (1644). This excerpt shows Rutherford’s social contract theory and includes the Puritan theory of resistance to a tyrant.
Areopagitica, John Milton (1644). A treatise arguing that true Christianity can win its own arguments, and does not need to worry about challenges from other points of view, and therefore, the Government should not prevent the publication of any ideas. This idea was later articulated by Locke in his Letter Concerning Toleration, and picked up by Madison and Jefferson in their establishment of religious liberty in the U.S.
The Westminster Confession of Faith (1646). In addition to being the decree of Parliament as the standard for Christian doctrine in the British Kingdom, it was adopted as the official statement of belief for the colonies of Massachusetts and Connecticut. Although slightly altered and called by different names, it was the creed of Congregationalist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches throughout the English speaking world. Assent to the Westminster Confession was officially required at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Princeton scholar Benjamin Warfield wrote: “It was impossible for any body of Christians in the [English] Kingdoms to avoid attending to it.”
The Westminster Catechism (1646). Second only to the Bible, the “Shorter Catechism” of the Westminster Confession was the most widely published piece of literature in the pre-revolutionary era in America. It is estimated that some five million copies were available in the colonies. With a total population of only four million people in America at the time of the Revolution, the number is staggering. The Westminster Catechism was not only a central part of the colonial educational curriculum, learning it was required by law. Each town employed an officer whose duty was to visit homes to hear the children recite the Catechism. The primary schoolbook for children, the New England Primer, included the Catechism. Daily recitations of it were required at these schools. Their curriculum included memorization of the Westminster Confession and the Westminster Larger Catechism. There was not a person at Independence Hall in 1776 who had not been exposed to it, and most of them had it spoon fed to them before they could walk.
A Description of the Province of New Albion, by Beauchamp Plantagenet (1648). A company of investors/planters sent Beauchamp Plantagenet to America to investigate lands for a new settlement. This account is his description of the area called New Albion, between Virginia and Maryland.
A Voyage to Virginia, by Colonel Norwood (1649). Colonel Norwood was a Royalist who decided after the death of Charles I to immigrate to Virginia, where he had friends and relatives. This document describes his voyage to Virginia, in which he visited many different colonies and survived a massive storm which nearly wrecked his ship.
A Perfect Description of VIRGINIA, by John Farrer (?) or author unknown(1649). This account of Virginia was written in England from letters and accounts of colonists in order to emphasize the many excellent qualities of life in Virginia. The author provides this information in a convenient list format.
A Voyage to Virginia, by Colonel Norwood (1649). Colonel Norwood was a Royalist who decided after the death of Charles I to immigrate to Virginia, where he had friends and relatives. This document describes his voyage to Virginia, in which he visited many different colonies and survived a massive storm which nearly wrecked his ship.
Of the Non-Compelling of Heathens, Samuel Rutherford (1649). Exploring the extent to which a government can coerce religious conformity.
An Agreement of the Free People of England (1649). The manifesto of the Levellers, the leaders of the 1649 English Civil War that deposed Charles I and brought a period of parliamentary rule. It expresses many of the ideals that later inspired the American Revolution.
The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, by John Milton (1650). Defends the execution of Charles I by the British Parliament a few days after its occurrence. It includes an excellent evaluation and summation of the political literature produced on the Continent in the 16th Century. Charles I was the first monarch executed in Europe by his subjects, setting the stage for a religious struggle which would grip Britain for several decades to come. The language and spelling of this edition have been done directly from the 1650 edition.
Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes (1651). Laid the basis for social contract theory, providing branching point for the theories of constitutionalism and fascism.
Act to Settle Protestants in Ireland (1652). A major watershed that led to the Catholic-Protestant conflict which has ensued in Northern Ireland for hundreds of years.
The Instrument of Government (1653). The Constitution of the English Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. Many of the founders, such as Samuel Adams, considered Oliver Cromwell their hero, and considered the Commonwealth as the glory years of England.
Healing Question, Sir Henry Vane (1656). ExpoundS the principles of civil and religious liberty, and proposes that method of forming a constitution, through a convention called for the purpose, which was actually followed in America after the Revolution.
The Flushing Remonstrance (1657). Proclamation granting liberty to “Jews, Muslims, and Quakers” on Long Island, New York, on the grounds of New Testament graciousness. Extremely progressive for the American colonies.
The Declaration of Breda, King Charles II Stuart (1660). As the Stuart King was to be restored to the throne after the end of the reign of the Puritan Protectorate, one of his first decisions was to attempt to avoid another religious war, by granting religious liberty to “tender consciences,” so long as they did not disturb the peace.
Excerpts from the Navigation Acts (1660–1696). The first Parliamentary legislation toward the colonies which would lead to the colonial rebellion of the eighteenth century.
Institutes of Elenctic Theology [excerpt on predestination], Francis Turretin (1660). The principal textbook used by students in American colleges in the 18th century (used at Princeton into the late 19th century).
The Book of Common Prayer (1662). As the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell came to an end and Charles II was restored to the throne of England, the Church of England once again introduced a new Book of Common Prayer. This was the guiding document for many throughout the American colonies, particularly in Virginia.
The Anglican Catechism (1662). The document which provided the religious training for many of the founding fathers of the U.S. (e.g., Washington, Madison, Henry, Wythe, Mason).
Theologico-Political Treatise, Baruch de Spinoza (1670). Discussed the ultimate source of legitimate political power.
Political Treatise, Baruch de Spinoza (1677). Constitutional considerations of various forms of government, including ideas that later influenced the Founders.
The New England Primer. The best-selling textbook used by children in the colonial period. Millions of copies were in print. Filled with Calvinist principles, the influence of this little document is inestimable.
Patriarcha, Robert Filmer (1640; republished 1680). A treatise defending the “divine right of Kings.” This was the document which Locke and Sidney both had in mind as they wrote their political tracts which formed the American founders’ political theory. Although this was written around 1640 in defense of Charles I’s divine right, it was not published until 1680.
The King’s Oath (1689). Establishes the requirement that the monarch uphold “the Protestant reformed religion.”
English Bill of Rights (1689). Early model for recognizing natural rights in writing. Much of its language appeared later in the Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution.
Second Treatise on Government, John Locke (1689). Principal proponent of the social contract theory which forms the basis for modern constitutional republican government.
A Letter Concerning Toleration, John Locke (1689). Classic statement of the case for toleration of those holding different religious views.
The London Baptist Confession of Faith (1689). Drawn from the Westminster Confession, this document set the beliefs of English Baptists during this era.
Transcripts of the Salem Witch Trials (1692). This is one of the Web’s best and most complete primary source documents, containing all of the court records of the Salem Witch trials. An invaluable resource.
Discourses Concerning Government, Algernon Sidney (1698). Builds principles of popular government from the foundation of natural law and the social contract. This book has been considered by scholars the “textbook of the American Revolution.”
Act of Union (1707). The document creating “Great Britain.”
Philosophical Commentary, Pierre Bayle (1708). A writer recommended by Thomas Jefferson, Bayle criticizes French Catholic persecution of Protestants, and argues for toleration as a matter of Biblical principle.
Theopolis Americana [God’s City: America], Cotton Mather (1709). This excerpt from Mather’s sermon shows how Mather, with other Puritans, believed that America was truly the “Promised Land.” This thinking led ultimately to the doctrine of Manifest Destiny.
Awakening Truths Tending to Conversion, Increase Mather (1710). A sermon wrestling with the paradox between predestination and man’s effort toward salvation.
The Angel of Bethesda, Cotton Mather. Here, Mather takes a position in favor of inoculation — a watershed in the history of medical science in America.
Selections from Cato’s Letters, John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon (1720–23). English newspaper articles advocating Whig principles, which much influenced the American colonists.
Discourse on the Five Points [of Calvinism], Daniel Whitby. The text which incited Jonathan Edwards to write his most important book, The Freedom of the Will.
Works of John Gill, John Gill (1738). Defense of Calvinism by a celebrated English Calvinist.
The True Scripture-Doctrine Concerning Some Important Points of the Christian Faith, Jonathan Dickinson (1741). Jonathan Dickinson was the first President of the College at Princeton, New Jersey. In this excerpt, Dickinson states that atheism is pure “stupidity” and “madness.” Dickinson’s opinion in this regard represented the consensus in America.
The Works of Jonathan Edwards. Enlightenment philosopher, theologian, orator, and scientist, Edwards was the most important American-born Great Awakening preacher and defender of orthodox Calvinism.
Sermons of George Whitefield. Known for his supreme oratory skills, Whitefield was the most famous inter-colonial celebrity during the Great Awakening. The inter-colonial nature of Whitefield’s ministry was an important step in the development of a sense of nationhood among the thirteen colonies.
The Complete Works of John Wesley. An English preacher who visited America, Wesley developed the practice of itinerant preaching: out of doors, traveling long distances on horseback. Wesley was a strong opponent of the Calvinism that was prevalent here.
The Principles of Natural Law, Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1748, tr. Thomas Nugent, 1752) This was the textbook on political theory used at Harvard. It was this book that gave James Otis, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Joseph Warren, and John Adams their understanding of political science.
The Principles of Politic Law, Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1748, tr. Thomas Nugent, 1752). Sequel to The Principles of Natural Law. Commentary on the ideas of Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, Samuel Pufendorf, Jean Barbeyrac, John Locke, Samuel Clarke, and Thomas Hutchinson.
The Spirit of Laws, Charles de Montesquieu (1748, tr. Thomas Nugent, 1752). Laid the foundations for the theory of republican government, particularly the concepts of the separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial, a federal republic, representatives elected from political subdivisions, a bicameral legislature, and a system of checks and balances. Montesquieu was the most frequently cited political theorist during the founding of the U.S.
A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Non-Resistance to the Higher Powers, Jonathan Mayhew (1750). About this document, John Adams wrote, “It was read by everybody; celebrated by friends, and abused by enemies... It spread an universal alarm against the authority of Parliament. It excited a general and just apprehension, that bishops, and dioceses, and churches, and priests, and tithes, were to be imposed on us by Parliament.” This sermon has been called the spark which ignited the American Revolution. This illustrates that the Revolution was not only about stamps and taxes, but also about religious liberty.
Memoir on the English Aggression (October 1750). Emphasizes the doctrine of predestination, which was the central controversy of the eighteenth century in the colonies. Colonists’ opinions were divided in this regard. Earlier in the century predestination was the majority view, but by the end of the century a belief in free will had become prevalent among many, such as Methodists.
A Discourse on Political Economy, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1755). Discussion on the economic principles affecting the politics of a society.
Dictionary, Samuel Johnson (1755). This was the standard dictionary of the late eighteenth century.
The Value and Purpose of Princeton College, Samuel Davies and Gilbert Tennent (1754). An appeal to British citizens to support the seminary which became Princeton University.
Religion and Patriotism the Constituents of a Good Soldier, Samuel Davies (1755). Davies, a Presbyterian preacher and president of the College at Princeton, here interprets the French and Indian war as a religious war. In this excerpt from a sermon preached in Virginia, Davies rouses the anti-Catholic sentiment of his hearers to rally them to arms against the French in the Ohio country.
The Stamp Act, 1765. Precipitated the “Stamp Act Crisis,” which fomented rebellion throughout the colonies.
The Declaratory Act, 1766. The English Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, but couldn’t leave well enough alone, and adopted this statement of parliamentary supremacy over the British colonies.
Blackstone’s Commentaries (1765). Considered the book that “lost the colonies” for England. This text delineates the legal principles of common law which ensure the fundamental rights of Englishmen. Blackstone was quoted by the colonists twice as often as Locke.
Offenses Against God and Religion, William Blackstone (1765). Showing the common understanding that the integrity of the judicial system depends upon the participants’ belief in God.
On Crimes and Punishments, Cesare Beccaria (1766). Sets out rights of the accused in criminal proceedings. Argues for crime prevention over punishment, and against the death penalty and torture.
The Hymnbook of Isaac Watts. After the Bible and the Catechism, this was the third most commonly used book in colonial New England.
The Rights of the Colonists, Samuel Adams (1772). John Adams indicated that all the concepts which Jefferson later set forth in the Declaration of Independence were first introduced here.
Early Virginia Religious Petitions (1774–1802). Thomas Jefferson, a member of the Virginia Committee on Religion, was greatly impacted by these petitions in developing his thoughts about religious liberty.
Journals of the Continental Congress, 34 Volumes. This invaluable collection of documents tells what took place in Philadelphia as the United States was being born.
Resolution of the House of Burgesses in Virginia (1774). This resolution was inspired by similar resolutions made in the Puritan Revolution of 1641. The Burgesses resolved to commit their crisis to prayer and fasting.
Sermon on Civil Liberty, Nathaniel Niles (1774). An example of how clergymen stoked the revolutionary spirit.
The Olive Branch Petition (1774). This document is a last-ditch attempt to mend the tears between Britain and America, but George III never read it.
A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity (1725). A little-known theological work in which Franklin makes a metaphysical argument for predestination and against free will. Franklin concludes that all things are ultimately good, because God is in total control and God is good.
Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, James Madison. These are the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia — an essential guide to interpreting the intent of the Framers.
The Age of Reason, Part 1. Paine argues the absurdity of the word of God’s existing in print. As a Deist, Paine believed that the true word of God is nature.
The Age of Reason, Part 2. Paine argues that neither the Old nor the New Testament can be the word of God.
Answer to Bishop LLandaff. Publication of The Age of Reason generated a storm of controversy. One of Paine’s critics was Bishop Llandaff, who published a detailed rebuttal. This is Paine’s reply.
The Farmer Refuted, Alexander Hamilton (1775). In this defense of the American cause in response to an Anglican minister’s criticism of the revolution, Hamilton states that laws, rights, and political principles are all based in the existence and law of God.
Speech on Conciliation with America, Edmund Burke (March 22, 1775). Burke describes the character of the American colonists and links their commitment to liberty to their Protestantism.
Government Corrupted by Vice, and Recovered by Righteousness, Samuel Langdon (May 31, 1775). This sermon, preached a year before Jefferson wrote his declaration, includes this phrase: “By the law of nature, any body of people, destitute of order and government, may form themselves into a civil society, according to their best prudence, and so provide for their common safety and advantage.”
Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death, Patrick Henry (1775). Famous oration which motivated Southerners to join in the battle already taking place in New England.
The Virginia Declaration of Rights, George Mason (1776). Unquestionably, a document which Jefferson had in mind when writing the Declaration of Independence.
The Dominion of Providence Over the Passions of Men, John Witherspoon (May, 1776). This sermon was preached by a member of the Second Continental Congress during the period in which the members were deciding upon American Independence.
The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith (1776). The manual for capitalism, the economic backbone of the United States. Jefferson said this was the best book of its kind.
The Origins and Progress of the American Revolution, Peter Oliver (1781). Oliver, a Tory, names the persons he feels are most responsible for the rebellion. James Otis and the Calvinist clergy ("black regiment") were the chief culprits.
Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, James Madison. These are the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia — an essential guide to interpreting the intent of the Framers.
On the Mode of Education Proper in a Republic, Benjamin Rush (1798). Rush, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, emphasizes the religious foundation and goal of all education.
Four Discourses on the General First Principles of Deism, Samuel E. McCorkle, D. D. (1798). The biggest intellectual controversy of the 1790s was called the “deist controversy.” On the one side were the followers of Thomas Paine; on the other side were orthodox Christians as represented here by the Rev. McCorkle.
This library is maintained by Dr. Richard Gardiner, Director of History Education, Columbus State University
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